mercredi 12 juillet 2017

July 11th, 2017

Alfred Russel Wallace was a naturalist who, in the 1850s, came up with the idea of Evolution through Natural Selection independent of Charles Darwin. Although Darwin and Wallace jointly published their findings in 1958, the two were quite different. While Darwin came from wealth, Wallace spent much of his life with little money. He didn't seem to care much for holding himself to standards of etiquette, and also pursued atypical theories without regard to loss-of-face amongst the scientific community. Wallace once took up a £500 wager that he could prove a flat-earth proponent wrong, which he did quite convincingly with the Bedford Level experiment. The experiment took advantage of a long stretch of uninterrupted calm water in Norfolk, called the Old Bedford Level. A boat with a flag in the rear sailed off into the distance, and an observer with a telescope observed the flag disappearing below the horizon. Wallace was declared the winner of the wager by a team of arbitrators, however the man who had made the wager accused Wallace of having cheated and sued him. Although Wallace won the case, he never saw the money, and in fact came out having lost money on the court fees. This aside, Wallace lived a good and long life, dying in 1913 at the age of 90, and after having traveled the world and fed many of his curiosities. Unlike Darwin, who died in 1882, Wallace also lived long enough to see Mendel's Theory of Inheritance begin to take root - a theory that would lay the foundation upon which Natural Selection operated.

-E

Note: I will be away for the next two months, largely without internet, and will therefore be taking a break. Updates will resume in September. 

mardi 11 juillet 2017

July 10th, 2017

Given the task of enumerating animals by strangeness, the extinct Macrauchenia would most likely find itself pretty high on the list. It appears to have traits from the llama, camel, rhinoceros, and a small elephant-like trunk to top it all off. Charles Darwin found a partial skeleton in Argentina on his travels aboard the HMS Beagle, yet was unable to pin down the exact origin of the creature. Recently, zoologists have confirmed that Macrauchenia was a relative of Odd-Toed Ungulates (or more technically Perissodactyla), which today includes the horses, rhinos, and tapirs.

Bonus 1:
One extant species with a somewhat similar 'mini-trunk' is the Saiga Antelope found in the Eurasian Steppe. However, it's an Even-Toed Ungulate, meaning it's not directly related to the Macrauchenia. The Saiga Antelope is critically endangered, and faces numerous threats such as horn-hunters for Chinese medicine, recreational hunting, habitat loss, and climate change. With the loss of almost the entire Mongolian population in 2016 to plague there is a good chance the species will soon join the Macrauchenia as one for the history books.

Bonus 2:
Macrauchenia and another extinct relative (Neocaliphrium) seem to be the only two in their order to have survived the Great American Interchange. This was a period about 3 million years ago in which - on account of the newly formed Isthmus of Panama - South American animals and North American animals were able to switch continents, and they did so in large quantity on account of environmental pressures, threatening endemic populations upon their arrival.

-E

lundi 10 juillet 2017

July 9th, 2017

Hanuman (हनुमान्) is a diety with a monkey likeness. Though primarily associated with Hinduism, he also exists in various forms in other religions and folklore, such as Jainism, Buddhism, and possibly also Chinese tradition. Such a well travelled god certainly accumulates many names, and Hanuman is no exception. One of his names, used in north India, is बजरंगबली (bajarangabali), which means वज्र (vajra) अङ्ग (ang, meaning limbs or body) वली (wali, meaning lord). Thus, a lord with limbs like a 'vajra'. But what on earth is a vajra? It's both the concept of the strength of a diamond, and the power of lightning, combined into one word. Vajra is also the name of a small two-headed club that is strongly associated with Hanuman, Indra, and Hinduism is general. Like Hanuman, the symbol has travelled, and is found in the Emblem of Bhutan, Japanese Buddhist iconography, and (somewhat modified) on the Emblem of the Royal Arms of Thailand.

Bonus:
One of the oldest stories of Hanuman talks of how he mistook the sun for a fruit, and leaped towards it. He (depending on the source) was either struck down by Indra, or burned as he approached, accounting for his disfigured monkey-like jaw. The story contains tantalising similarities to that of Icarus, and perhaps hints at a common origin (such as that of Indra and Zeus). Unfortunately, there is not enough evidence to conclusively rule out coincidence.

-E

July 8th, 2017

Want some easy points in scrabble? Check out the five parts of a human soul, as defined by Ancient Egypt. They are:
  • Jb - the heart, and source of emotion, thought, will, and intention.
  • Sheut - the shadow, containing some transcendental aspect of the person's physical being.
  • Ren - a person's name.
  • Ba - their personality.
  • Ka - their 'vital spark', referring to that which animates them, and distinguishes them for the inanimate.
Though only BaKa, and sometimes Ren are considered English words, fit for scrabble. Go figure.

-E

July 7th, 2017

Secure Hash Algorithm 2 (SHA-2) is a cryptographic algorithm which converts any text to binary. This may sound fairly unimpressive, however there are a few interesting qualities. Firstly, no matter how massive the text input (even an entire book), the binary output will always have a length of 256. As an example, converting 'hi' returns the output:

8f434346648f6b96df89dda901c5176b10a6d83961dd3c1ac88b59b2dc327aa4

which is in hexadecimal. This can be then changed to binary, which gives:

1000 1111 0100 0011 0100 0011 0100 0110 0110 0100 1000 1111 0110 1011 1001 0110 1101 1111 1000 1001 1101 1101 1010 1001 0000 0001 1100 0101 0001 0111 0110 1011 0001 0000 1010 0110 1101 1000 0011 1001 0110 0001 1101 1101 0011 1100 0001 1010 1100 1000 1000 1011 0101 1001 1011 0010 1101 1100 0011 0010 0111 1010 1010 0100

If you count all the 0s and 1s, there are indeed 256. SHA-2 is also 'collision resistant'. This means that, although you can use anything of any length as input, and your output is always 256 zeros and ones, it is practically impossible to find two different inputs that give the same output. How is this possible? Well, the number of different possible outputs for 256 characters that can be either 0 or 1 is $2^{256}$. This is roughly equal to:

$10^{77} =~$100 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000

This enormous number of possible outputs makes it nearly impossible to find two inputs that generate the same output. That it is very quick and easy to calculate the output of a given input, but effectively impossible to go the other way, makes SHA-2 the current standard for computer encryption. It also plays a pivotal role in online currencies (cryptocurrencies), such as bitcoin.

-E

vendredi 7 juillet 2017

July 6th, 2017

Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with our perception and understanding of beauty. It has existed in some form or other since Plato. Over the centuries the debate has taken some interesting turns. Hegel linked the idea of beauty to the ideal of truth. Darwin's theory of Natural Selection was used to motivate an 'evolution' of aesthetic taste. The Dada movement severely shook aesthetics by pushing an anti-art agenda, and by blurring the lines between beauty and arbitrary expression. The debate rages on, though perhaps one can take solace in this quote by Barnett Newman:
"Aesthetics is for the artist as ornithology is for the birds."
-E 

jeudi 6 juillet 2017

July 5th, 2017

Paracetamol (perhaps better known as Tylenol) is a common painkiller. In addition to humans, it can also be used to treat pain in animals such as dogs and horses (though it should only ever be administered after consulting a veterinarian). However, cats lack the enzyme required to break down acids in Paracetamol. As a result, toxic compounds begin to build up after ingestion, and can often lead to death.

-E

July 4th, 2017

Beijinho No Ombro is a portuguese song by Brazilian artist Valesca Popozuda. The title means 'A Little Kiss on the Shoulder', and entered into Brazilian vernacular after the song's release in 2013. The idea of giving your shoulder a little kiss is meant somewhat as a cute gesture of deprecation towards a rival. As if to say "You did your best" in a snide manner. It's perhaps similar to the English slang "GG no re" (Good Game, no rematch) used amongst gamers, though more versatile in context. The expression was incorporated into a campaign promoting safe sex: Beijinho No Ombro & Camisinha No Bolso (Kiss on the shoulder and condom in the pocket).

Bonus:
Valesca Popozuda's real name is Valesca Reis Santos. Popozuda is Brazillian slang for a woman with a large butt.

-E

mercredi 5 juillet 2017

July 3rd, 2017

In addition to balancing the salt content of the body and filtering various liquids into urine, kidneys can also help with blood pressure. Over time, they can compensate for low blood pressure by adding fluid to the circulatory system, however this is only a temporary fix, and properly circulating blood in clean arteries is the only real solution. The kidney is quite a hard-working organ. It also plays a role in secreting hormones, reabsorbing nutrients, and filters about 180 litres of liquid a day (of which, only about 2 litres become urine).

Bonus:
These days, most commercial planes are 'fly-by-wire'. That is to say, the control wheel (or 'yoke') is not directly attached to any piece of control machinery. Instead, inputs are connected to a computer, and the plane decides if the command would be safe before executing it. This way, modern planes cannot be stalled nor flipped by careless pilots (though they can still be flown into mountains).

-E

mardi 4 juillet 2017

July 2nd, 2017

Today Europe is dominated by cheap 'no-frills' airlines: Ryan Air, EasyJet, Transavia, Wizz Air, etc. Yet fewer and fewer remember the airline that started it all: Laker Airways. Until the 60s, flying was a luxury. So when Laker Airways began flying very basic yet cheap flights in 1966, it shook the industry. The man behind the undertaking was Frederick Laker, a British businessman keen to get his foot into the airline market. He succeeded, with prices across the Atlantic as low as £59. Other airlines, needless to say, were not amused. The big players at the time (British Ariways, Pan Am, KLM, Air France, etc.) all dropped their prices to below-cost. At a time when Laker Airways was already struggling from the financial climate, this was a death blow, and the company filed for bankruptcy in February 1982. However, the ending wasn't an unhappy one for Freddie Laker. He sued 12 airlines for price collusion and won. The settlement resulted in the airlines paying the bankruptcy costs of Laker Airways, as well £8m out of court for Freddie. To top it all off Freddie was knighted for his contributions to the airline industry. Freddie died in 2006, but not before inspiring the next generation of low-cost carriers (specifically Virgin Atlantic and easyJet) with his wisdom: "Sue the bastards".

-E

July 1st, 2017

During the Second World War, the German invasion and occupation of Denmark was...relatively relaxed. The Nazi ground campaign lasted only 6 hours before Denmark surrendered, making it the shortest campaign in the war. The Danes did resist the occupation, but more through underground activities than direct fighting. They also successfully smuggled all but 500 of their population of 8,000 Jews into neutral Sweden. By the end of the war, 'only' 3,000 Danes had died in Denmark as a result of the occupation (although many others had perished fighting in other countries), a much smaller percentage than in most other countries. On account of all this, Germans referred to Denmark as the 'Whipped Cream Front', as the chance of being killed was much less than the Eastern or Western Fronts.

-E